Calcium
2008/9 Schools Wikipedia Selection. Related subjects: Chemical elements
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| General | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Name, symbol, number | calcium, Ca, 20 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Chemical series | alkaline earth metals | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Group, period, block | 2, 4, s | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Appearance | silvery white |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Standard atomic weight | 40.078 (4) g·mol−1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electron configuration | [Ar] 4s2 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electrons per shell | 2, 8, 8, 2 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Physical properties | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Phase | solid | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Density (near r.t.) | 1.55 g·cm−3 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Liquid density at m.p. | 1.378 g·cm−3 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Melting point | 1115 K (842 ° C, 1548 ° F) |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Boiling point | 1757 K (1484 ° C, 2703 ° F) |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Heat of fusion | 8.54 kJ·mol−1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Heat of vaporization | 154.7 kJ·mol−1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Specific heat capacity | (25 °C) 25.929 J·mol−1·K−1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Atomic properties | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Crystal structure | face centered cubic | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Oxidation states | 2 (strongly basic oxide) |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electronegativity | 1.00 (Pauling scale) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Ionization energies ( more) |
1st: 589.8 kJ·mol−1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 2nd: 1145.4 kJ·mol−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 3rd: 4912.4 kJ·mol−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Atomic radius | 180 pm | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Atomic radius (calc.) | 194 pm | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Covalent radius | 174 pm | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Miscellaneous | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Magnetic ordering | paramagnetic | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electrical resistivity | (20 °C) 33.6 nΩ·m | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Thermal conductivity | (300 K) 201 W·m−1·K−1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Thermal expansion | (25 °C) 22.3 µm·m−1·K−1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Speed of sound (thin rod) | (20 °C) 3810 m/s | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Young's modulus | 20 GPa | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Shear modulus | 7.4 GPa | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Bulk modulus | 17 GPa | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Poisson ratio | 0.31 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mohs hardness | 1.75 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Brinell hardness | 167 MPa | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| CAS registry number | 7440-70-2 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Selected isotopes | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| References | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Calcium (pronounced /ˈkælsiəm/) is the chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. It has an atomic mass of 40.078. Calcium is a soft grey alkaline earth metal, and is the fifth most abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust. Calcium is also the fifth most abundant dissolved ion in seawater by both molarity and mass, after sodium, chloride, magnesium, and sulfate.
Calcium is essential for living organisms, particularly in cell physiology, where movement of the calcium ion Ca2+ into and out of the cytoplasm functions as a signal for many cellular processes. As a major material used in mineralization of bones and shells, calcium is the most abundant metal by mass in many animals.
Notable characteristics
The most abundant isotope, 40Ca, has a nucleus of 20 protons and 20 neutrons. This is the heaviest stable isotope of any element which has equal numbers of protons and neutrons. In supernova explosions, calcium is formed from the reaction of carbon with various numbers of alpha particles (helium nuclei), until the most common calcium isotope (containing 10 helium nuclei) has been synthesized. Calcium is the seventh most common element, by mass, in Earth's oceans (hydrogen and oxygen must be added to the list in the introduction).
Chemically calcium is reactive and moderately soft for a metal (though harder than lead, it can be cut with a knife with difficulty). It is a silvery metallic element that must be extracted by electrolysis from a fused salt like calcium chloride. Once produced, it rapidly forms a grey-white oxide and nitride coating when exposed to air. It is somewhat difficult to ignite, in character rather like magnesium, but when lit, the metal burns in air with a brilliant high-intensity red light. Calcium metal reacts with water, evolving hydrogen gas at a rate rapid enough to be noticeable (unlike its sister magnesium) but not fast enough at room temperature to generate much heat. In powdered form, however, the reaction with water is extremely rapid, as the increased surface area of the powder creates heat which accelerates the reaction with the water. Part of the slowness of the calcium-water reaction results from the metal being partly protected by insoluble white calcium hydroxide. In water solutions of acids where the salt is water soluble, calcium reacts vigorously.
Calcium salts are colorless from any contribution of the calcium, and ionic solutions of calcium (Ca2+) are colorless as well. Many calcium salts are not soluble in water. When in solution, the calcium ion to the human taste varies remarkably, being reported as mildly salty, sour, "mineral like" or even "soothing." It is apparent that many animals can taste, or develop a taste, for calcium, and use this sense to detect the mineral in salt licks or other sources. . In human nutrition, soluble calcium salts may be added to tart juices without much effect to the average palate.
Calcium is the fifth most abundant element by mass in the human body, where it is a common cellular ionic messenger with many functions, and serves also as a structural element in bone. It is the relatively high atomic-numbered calcium in the skeleton which causes bone to be radio-opaque. Of the human body's solid components after drying (as for example, after cremation), about a third of the total mass is the approximately one kilogram of calcium which composes the average skeleton (the remainder being mostly phosphorus and oxygen).
Occurrence
Calcium is not naturally found in its elemental state. Calcium occurs most commonly in sedimentary rocks in the minerals calcite, dolomite and gypsum. It also occurs in igneous and metamorphic rocks chiefly in the silicate minerals: plagioclase, amphiboles, pyroxenes and garnets.
Applications
Some uses are:
- as a reducing agent in the extraction of other metals, such as uranium, zirconium, and thorium.
- as a deoxidizer, desulfurizer, or decarbonizer for various ferrous and nonferrous alloys.
- as an alloying agent used in the production of aluminium, beryllium, copper, lead, and magnesium alloys.
- in the making of cements and mortars to be used in construction.
Calcium compounds
- Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) used in manufacturing cement and mortar, lime, limestone (usually used in the steel industry); aids in production in the glass industry, also has chemical and optical uses as mineral specimens in toothpastes for example.
- Calcium hydroxide solution (Ca(OH)2) (also known as limewater) is used to detect the presence of carbon dioxide by being bubbled through a solution. It turns cloudy where CO2 is present.
- Calcium arsenate (Ca3(AsO4)2) is used in insecticides.
- Calcium carbide (CaC2) is used: to make acetylene gas (for use in acetylene torches for welding) and in the manufacturing of plastics.
- Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is used: in ice removal and dust control on dirt roads, in conditioner for concrete, as an additive in canned tomatoes, and to provide body for automobile tires.
- Calcium cyclamate (Ca(C6H11NHSO4)2) was used as a sweetening agent but is no longer permitted for use because of suspected cancer-causing properties.
- Calcium gluconate (Ca(C6H11O7)2) is used as a food additive and in vitamin pills.
- Calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2) is used: as a swimming pool disinfectant, as a bleaching agent, as an ingredient in deodorant, and in algaecide and fungicide.
- Calcium permanganate (Ca(MnO4)2) is used in liquid rocket propellant, textile production, as a water sterilizing agent and in dental procedures.
- Calcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2) is used as a supplement for animal feed, fertilizer, in commercial production for dough and yeast products, in the manufacture of glass, and in dental products.
- Calcium phosphide (Ca3P2) is used in fireworks, rodenticide, torpedoes and flares.
- Calcium stearate (Ca(C18H35O2)2 is used in the manufacture of wax crayons, cements, certain kinds of plastics and cosmetics, as a food additive, in the production of water resistant materials and in the production of paints.
- Calcium sulfate (CaSO4·2H2O) is used as common blackboard chalk, as well as, in its hemihydrate form being more well known as Plaster of Paris.
- Calcium tungstate (CaWO4) is used in luminous paints, fluorescent lights and in X-ray studies.
H and K lines
In the visible portion of the spectrum of many stars, including the Sun, show strong absorption lines of singly-ionized Calcium. Prominent among these are the H-line at 3968.5 Å and the K line at 3933.7 Å of singly-ionized Calcium, or Ca II. For the Sun and stars with low temperatures, the prominence of the H and K lines can be an indication of strong magnetic activity in the chromosphere. Measurement of periodic variations of these active regions can also be used to deduce the rotation periods of these stars.
History
Calcium (Latin calx, meaning "limestone") was known as early as the first century when the Ancient Romans prepared lime as calcium oxide. It was not isolated until 1808 in England when Sir Humphry Davy electrolyzed a mixture of lime and mercuric oxide. Davy was trying to isolate calcium; when he heard that Berzelius and Pontin prepared calcium amalgam by electrolyzing lime in mercury, he tried it himself. He worked with electrolysis throughout his life and also discovered/isolated sodium, potassium, magnesium, boron and barium.
Other compounds include Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), one of the common compounds of calcium. It is heated to form quicklime (CaO), which is then added to water (H2O). This forms another material known as slaked lime (Ca(OH)2), which is an inexpensive base material used throughout the chemical industry. Chalk, marble, and limestone are all forms of calcium carbonate.
Compounds
Calcium, combined with phosphate to form hydroxylapatite, is the mineral portion of human and animal bones and teeth. The mineral portion of some corals can also be transformed into hydroxylapatite.
Calcium oxide (lime) is used in many chemical refinery processes and is made by heating and carefully adding water to limestone. When lime is mixed with sand, it hardens into a mortar and is turned into plaster by carbon dioxide uptake. Mixed with other compounds, lime forms an important part of Portland cement.
When water percolates through limestone or other soluble carbonate rocks, it partially dissolves part of the rock and causes cave formation and characteristic stalactites and stalagmites and also forms hard water. Other important calcium compounds are nitrate, sulfide, chloride, carbide, cyanamide, and hypochlorite.
Isotopes
Calcium has four stable isotopes (40Ca and 42Ca through 44Ca), plus two more isotopes (46Ca and 48Ca) that have such long half-lives that for all practical purposes they can be considered stable. It also has a cosmogenic isotope, radioactive 41Ca, which has a half-life of 103,000 years. Unlike cosmogenic isotopes that are produced in the atmosphere, 41Ca is produced by neutron activation of 40Ca. Most of its production is in the upper metre or so of the soil column, where the cosmogenic neutron flux is still sufficiently strong. 41Ca has received much attention in stellar studies because it decays to 41K, a critical indicator of solar-system anomalies.
97% of naturally occurring calcium is in the form of 40Ca. 40Ca is one of the daughter products of 40K decay, along with 40Ar. While K-Ar dating has been used extensively in the geological sciences, the prevalence of 40Ca in nature has impeded its use in dating. Techniques using mass spectrometry and a double spike isotope dilution have been used for K-Ca age dating.
Nutrition
| Age | Calcium (mg/day) |
|---|---|
| 0–6 months | 210 |
| 7–12 months | 270 |
| 1–3 years | 500 |
| 4–8 years | 800 |
| 9–18 years | 1300 |
| 19–50 years | 1000 |
| 51+ years | 1200 |
Calcium is an important component of a healthy diet. Calcium is essential for the normal growth and maintenance of bones and teeth, and calcium requirements must be met throughout life. Long-term calcium deficiency can lead to osteoporosis, in which the bone deteriorates and there is an increased risk of fractures. While a lifelong deficit can affect bone and tooth formation, over-retention can cause hypercalcemia (elevated levels of calcium in the blood), impaired kidney function and decreased absorption of other minerals.
High calcium intakes or high calcium absorption were previously thought to contribute to the development of kidney stones. However, more recent studies show that high dietary calcium intakes actually decrease the risk for kidney stones. Vitamin D is needed to absorb calcium. Dairy products, such as milk and cheese, are a well-known source of calcium. However, some individuals are allergic to dairy products and even more people, particularly those of non Indo-European descent, are lactose-intolerant, leaving them unable to consume non-fermented dairy products in quantities larger than about half a liter per serving. Others, such as vegans, avoid dairy products for ethical and health reasons. Fortunately, many good sources of calcium exist. These include seaweeds such as kelp, wakame and hijiki; nuts and seeds (like almonds and sesame); blackstrap molasses; beans; oranges; figs; amaranth; collard greens; okra; rutabaga; broccoli; dandelion leaves; kale; and fortified products such as orange juice and soy milk. An overlooked source of calcium is eggshell, which can be ground into a powder and mixed into food or a glass of water. Cultivated vegetables generally have less calcium than wild plants.
The calcium content of most foods can be found in the USDA National Nutrient Database.
Dietary calcium supplements
Calcium supplements are used to prevent and to treat calcium deficiencies. There are conflicting recommendations about when to take calcium supplements. However, most experts agree that no more than 500 mg should be taken at a time because the percent of calcium absorbed decreases as the amount of calcium in the supplement increases. It is recommended to spread doses throughout the day, with the last dose near bedtime. Recommended daily calcium intake varies from 1000 to 1500 mg, depending upon the stage of life.
In July 2006, a report citing research from Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Centre in Seattle, Washington claimed that women in their 50s gained 5 pounds less in a period of 10 years by taking more than 500 mg of calcium supplements than those who did not. However, the doctor in charge of the study, Dr. Alejandro J. Gonzalez also noted it would be "going out on a limb" to suggest calcium supplements as a weight-limiting aid.
- Calcium carbonate is the most common and least expensive calcium supplement. It can be difficult to digest and causes gas in some people. Taking magnesium with it can help to prevent constipation. Calcium carbonate is 40% elemental calcium. 1000 mg will provide 400 mg of calcium. It is recommended to take this supplement with food to aid in absorption. In some calcium supplements based on calcium carbonate, vitamin D is added to aid in absorption. Vitamin D is needed for the absorption of calcium from the stomach and for the functioning of calcium in the body.
- Coral Calcium is a salt of calcium derived from fossilized coral reefs. Coral calcium is comprised of calcium carbonate and trace minerals.
- Calcium citrate is more easily absorbed ( bioavailability is 2.5 times higher than calcium carbonate if taken on empty stomach), easier to digest and less likely to cause constipation and gas than calcium carbonate. It also has a lower risk of contributing to the formation of kidney stones. Calcium citrate is about 21% elemental calcium. 1000 mg will provide 210 mg of calcium. It is more expensive than calcium carbonate and more of it must be taken to get the same amount of calcium.
- Calcium phosphate costs more than calcium carbonate, but less than calcium citrate. It is easily absorbed and is less likely to cause constipation and gas than either.
- Calcium lactate and calcium aspartate are both more difficult to digest and are more expensive than calcium carbonate
- Calcium chelates have been chemically bonded with an agent that the body recognizes as food. This form is generally known to be better absorbed by the human body than all other forms of calcium due to the bond.
The National Nutritional Food Association — NNFA (Newport Beach, Calif.) defines a chelate very specifically, and several criteria must be met in order for chelation to actually occur. Some of the claimed "chelates" on the market are the various Krebs (Citric Acid) Cycle chelates, such as citrate, malate, and aspartate. Dicalcium malate (chelated with malic acid) is a newer form of a true calcium chelate. It contains a high amount of elemental calcium (30%).
Prevention of fractures due to osteoporosis
Such studies often do not test calcium alone, but rather combinations of calcium and vitamin D. Randomized controlled trials found both positive and negative benefit. The different results may be explained by doses of calcium and underlying rates of calcium supplementation in the control groups. However, it is clear that increasing the intake of calcium promotes deposition of calcium in the bones, where it is of more benefit in preventing the compression fractures resulting from the osteoporotic thinning of the dendritic web of the bodies of the vertebrae, than it is at preventing the more serious cortical bone fractures which happen at hip and wrist.
Prevention of cancer?
A meta-analysis by the international Cochrane Collaboration of two randomized controlled trialsfound that calcium "might contribute to a moderate degree to the prevention of adenomatous colonic polyps".
More recent studies were conflicting, and one which was positive for effect (Lappe, et al.) did control for a possible anti-carcinogenic effect of vitamin D, which was found to be an independent positive influence from calcium-alone on cancer risk (see second study below) .
- A randomized controlled trial found that 1000 mg of elemental calcium and 400 IU of vitamin D3 had no effect on colorectal cancer
- A randomized controlled trial found that 1400–1500 mg supplemental calcium and 1100 IU vitamin D3 reduced aggregated cancers with a relative risk of 0.402.
- An observational cohort study found that high calcium and vitamin D intake was associated with "lower risk of developing premenopausal breast cancer."